Blocks

Wooden blocks—pulley systems essential to sailing ship operation—enabled crews to manage heavy rigging, sails, and cargo through mechanical advantage. Carved from lignum vitae or elm, these devices represented critical maritime technology, with hundreds installed on a single vessel to distribute loads and facilitate complex maneuvers.

Era: c.1650-1725
Name: The Block System
Role: Mechanical advantage device enabling sail and cargo management
Significance: Without blocks, wooden sailing ships could not function; they transformed human strength into manageable force across the entire vessel

Specifications

Typical Weight: 0.5–15 pounds (0.2–7 kg) per block
Primary Materials: Lignum vitae (guaiacum officinale) for sheaves; elm, ash, or oak for shells
Quantity Per Ship: 400–1,000+ blocks on a large ship-of-the-line
Working Load Limit: Varied by size and material; largest blocks rated 5–10 tons under tension
Mechanical Advantage: Single block (1:1) to complex tackle systems (6:1 or greater)
Sheave Diameter Range: 2–18 inches (5–46 cm), depending on application
Rope Diameter Accommodated: 0.5–2 inches (1.3–5 cm)

Engineering

Tackle Systems: Blocks were combined in pairs or groups to create mechanical advantage. A simple tackle—two blocks with a single rope threaded through both—doubled pulling force. More complex systems (gun tackles, luff tackles, three-fold purchases) could multiply force by 4, 6, or more times, allowing small crews to manage massive sails and cargo.
Sheave Mechanics: The rotating wheel (sheave) was the block's heart. Lignum vitae was chosen for its extreme hardness, density (1.2 g/cm³), and self-lubricating properties—it resists wear and requires minimal maintenance in salt-water environments. The sheave rotated on a wooden or iron pin (axle) fitted through its center.
Load Distribution: Blocks were positioned at strategic points: mast heads, yard arms, rails, and deck structures. The distribution prevented stress concentration and allowed coordinated movement of multiple rope systems simultaneously.
Shell Construction: The outer frame (shell) was carved from a single piece of timber, typically elm or oak, with a longitudinal opening (swallow) through which rope passed. Shells were reinforced with iron straps or bands to prevent splitting under load. Larger blocks featured multiple sheaves stacked in parallel within a single shell.

Parts & Labels

Eye: The hole through which the pin passes; reinforced with iron or hardwood bushing
Tail: A short length of rope attached to the block for securing to masts or rails
Cheek: The side wall of the shell, typically 0.75–1.5 inches thick
Score: Grooves cut into the shell's exterior for rope or strap attachment
Shell: The outer wooden frame housing the sheave; carved from single timber
Strap: Iron bands (typically wrought iron) reinforcing the shell and securing the block to rigging
Becket: A loop of rope or iron eye at the block's end, used for attachment to rigging or fixed points
Sheave: The rotating wheel; typically 2–6 inches in diameter for standard blocks
Swallow: The longitudinal opening in the shell through which rope passes
Pin Or Axle: The wooden or iron rod on which the sheave rotates

Historical Overview

Materials Shift: Early blocks used elm or ash throughout. The introduction of lignum vitae sheaves (imported from Spanish colonies in the Caribbean and later from English colonial holdings) revolutionized block performance. By 1700, major naval powers mandated lignum vitae for all sheaves in combat vessels. Pirate ships and privateers often salvaged blocks from captured vessels or obtained them through colonial smuggling networks.
Standardization Era: By 1720, the Royal Navy had established formal block specifications, documented in dockyards at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham. These standards influenced colonial American shipbuilding and, indirectly, pirate ship maintenance. Blocks became interchangeable components, allowing rapid repairs and modifications.
Origins And Development: Blocks evolved from simple pulley systems used in ancient Mediterranean and Northern European shipbuilding. By the 16th century, English and Dutch shipwrights had standardized block design for large ocean-going vessels. The Golden Age of Piracy (c.1650–1725) inherited and refined these systems, with English naval dockyards producing blocks to exacting specifications. The Royal Navy's standardization of block sizes and materials—particularly the adoption of lignum vitae from Caribbean sources after c.1680—marked a turning point in reliability and durability.

Why It Existed

Safety: Properly rigged blocks distributed loads evenly, reducing the risk of rope failure or structural damage. A poorly maintained block could fail catastrophically, potentially bringing down a mast or injuring crew.
Cargo Handling: Merchant vessels and pirate ships alike used blocks to load and unload cargo. A single block-and-tackle system could lift a barrel or crate that would otherwise require four men to carry.
Crew Efficiency: A ship of 100–150 crew could manage a vessel of 1,000+ tons displacement. Blocks multiplied human effort, allowing a dozen sailors to perform tasks that would otherwise require fifty.
Maneuverability: Complex tackle systems allowed rapid adjustment of sails, essential for combat, pursuit, or escape. Pirate vessels relied on superior sailing qualities to catch merchant ships; blocks enabled the quick sail changes that provided this advantage.
Mechanical Necessity: A wooden sailing ship's mainsail could weigh 2–4 tons; the main yard (the horizontal spar from which it hung) weighed 3–6 tons. No crew, however strong, could raise these without mechanical advantage. Blocks made this possible.

Daily Use

Maintenance: Worn sheaves were replaced (a skilled task requiring removal of the pin and careful fitting of a new sheave). Rope was regularly inspected where it passed through block swallows; frayed sections were cut away. Iron straps were checked for rust and replaced if corroded.
Night Watch: Blocks were less actively used at night (sails were typically set and held steady), but night watches included listening for unusual creaking or grinding sounds that might indicate a failing block.
Sail Handling: Every time sails were raised, lowered, or adjusted, blocks were in use. A typical day at sea involved multiple sail changes—perhaps 5–10 separate operations—each using dozens of blocks in coordinated sequence.
Emergency Repairs: In combat or severe weather, blocks could be damaged by cannon fire, falling spars, or excessive strain. Sailors carried spare blocks and could replace a damaged one in 10–15 minutes if the block was accessible. Blocks in the rigging were harder to reach and might require a sailor to climb the mast or yard.
Morning Operations: Sailors inspected blocks for wear, fraying rope, or iron corrosion. Wooden blocks were checked for splits; sheaves were rotated by hand to ensure smooth operation. Blocks exposed to weather were sometimes greased with tallow.

Crew / Personnel

Bosun: Supervised daily rigging operations and ensured blocks were used correctly. The bosun trained younger sailors in proper block handling and reported worn blocks to the rigger.
Rigger: A senior craftsman responsible for maintaining all blocks and tackle. The rigger inspected blocks daily, replaced worn sheaves, and designed custom tackle systems for specific tasks. On a large ship, the rigger was a warrant officer with 15–25 years of experience.
Carpenter: Responsible for wooden repairs, including carving replacement block shells and fitting new sheaves. The carpenter worked closely with the rigger.
Specialists: On pirate vessels, a skilled rigger was highly valued and sometimes spared from combat duties to maintain the ship's sailing qualities. Some pirate crews included former naval riggers, captured or recruited.
Ordinary Sailors: Operated blocks as part of normal duties—hauling on lines, adjusting tackle, and reporting damage. Sailors learned block systems through apprenticeship, typically mastering basic systems within 1–2 years.

Construction

Assembly: The sheave was inserted into the shell and secured with a wooden or iron pin. The pin was hammered through the eye (the hole in the shell) and the sheave's center hole. If iron, the pin was riveted on both ends. Wooden pins were sometimes wedged to prevent rotation.
Finishing: The completed block was inspected for smooth operation. The sheave was rotated by hand to ensure it turned freely. Any rough spots were sanded or filed. The block was then marked with the maker's initials or the naval dockyard's stamp (e.g., 'Portsmouth' or 'Plymouth').
Reinforcement: Iron straps were fitted around the shell to prevent splitting. These were typically wrought iron, 0.5 inches wide and 0.1 inches thick, fitted with nails or rivets. A single block might have 2–4 straps, depending on size and intended load.
Shell Carving: A block shell began as a roughly squared timber, typically 4–8 inches long and 2–4 inches wide. The craftsman marked the swallow (the longitudinal opening) and used a saw to cut it lengthwise, roughly 1 inch deep. The two halves were then glued or pegged back together, creating a channel through which rope could pass. The exterior was then shaped with adze and knife, creating the characteristic rounded profile.
Sheave Manufacture: Lignum vitae was sawn into rough discs and then turned on a lathe to precise diameter. A hole was drilled through the center for the pin. The sheave's edge was sometimes grooved to guide the rope, though many blocks had smooth sheaves. A single sheave might take 2–3 hours to produce, including turning, drilling, and finishing.
Timeline Per Block: A skilled craftsman could produce 2–4 blocks per day, depending on size and complexity. A large ship-of-the-line required 600–1,000 blocks, representing 150–250 days of labor by a single craftsman, though dockyards employed teams of 10–20 block makers working in parallel.

Variations

Deadeyes: A variation with three holes instead of a sheave, used for adjusting standing rigging (shrouds and stays). Technically not a pulley block, but part of the same rigging system.
Fish Blocks: Specialized blocks with a flattened profile, used on the sides of masts for managing multiple lines in parallel.
Iron Blocks: Blocks with iron shells (instead of wood) became more common after c.1700, particularly in naval vessels. Iron blocks were heavier but more durable in combat conditions.
Double Blocks: Two sheaves stacked side-by-side in a single shell, allowing two ropes to be managed simultaneously. Common in complex tackle systems.
Single Blocks: One sheave in a shell; the simplest and most common type. Used for basic hauling and sail adjustment.
Snatch Blocks: A block with one side of the shell open, allowing a rope to be inserted or removed without threading through the entire block. Used for emergency repairs or temporary rigging.
Triple Blocks: Three sheaves in a single shell; used for heavy-duty applications like raising the main yard or managing the main sheet.
Size Variations: Blocks ranged from tiny (1 inch diameter sheave) for delicate rigging to massive (18 inch diameter sheave) for main yards. Pirate ships often carried a mix of salvaged blocks of varying sizes.

Timeline

1650: Standardized block production begins in English naval dockyards; elm and ash blocks dominate
1660: Restoration of Charles II; Royal Navy expands and standardizes block specifications across all dockyards
1670: First recorded use of lignum vitae sheaves in English naval vessels; Caribbean trade routes established
1680: Lignum vitae becomes preferred material for sheaves in all major naval powers; cost decreases as colonial supply increases
1690: Privateering wars increase demand for blocks; colonial American shipyards begin producing blocks to English specifications
1700: Royal Navy formally documents block standards in the 'Establishment of Sizes' (unpublished dockyards manual); blocks become fully interchangeable
1710: Pirate ships (e.g., Blackbeard's Queen Anne's Revenge) carry blocks salvaged from merchant and naval vessels; no standardization in pirate fleets
1720: Golden Age of Piracy peaks; demand for replacement blocks drives smuggling networks in colonial ports
1725: Suppression of piracy reduces demand; naval block production stabilizes at peacetime levels

Famous Examples

Whydah Gally: Pirate ship (wrecked 1717) carried blocks salvaged from multiple sources. Underwater archaeology recovered 47 block fragments, now at the Whydah Pirate Museum (Provincetown, MA). Analysis shows blocks from English, Dutch, and French origins, suggesting the ship's rigging was assembled from captured vessels.
HMS Victory Blocks: Nelson's flagship (launched 1765, but rigged with blocks from c.1750 design standards) carried approximately 1,000 blocks. The Victory's blocks are documented in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. Specifications: sheaves ranged from 3 inches (small tackle) to 16 inches (main yard blocks); all sheaves were lignum vitae; shells were elm with wrought-iron straps.
Queen Annes Revenge: Blackbeard's flagship (captured 1718) was a former French merchant vessel. Archaeological investigation (1996–present) recovered block fragments from the wreck off North Carolina. The blocks showed mixed provenance: some were French-made (c.1700), others appeared to be English salvage. Sheave diameters ranged from 4–12 inches.
Colonial American Blocks: American shipyards (Boston, New York, Philadelphia) began producing blocks c.1690. These blocks are less well-documented than English examples but appear in ship inventories and privateering records. American blocks often used local hardwoods (hickory, locust) instead of imported lignum vitae, resulting in shorter sheave life.
Royal Navy Dockyards Production: Portsmouth Dockyard (established 1496, major expansion c.1660) produced blocks to exacting standards. By 1700, Portsmouth was producing 2,000–3,000 blocks annually. Records (National Archives, Kew) document block specifications, materials, and costs: a single large block cost 2–4 shillings (expensive for the era).

Archaeological Finds

Whydah Gally Wreck: Location: Off Cape Cod, Massachusetts; depth: 45 feet. Excavated 1984–present by underwater archaeologist Barry Clifford. Artifacts: 47 block fragments (sheaves and shell pieces), several with iron straps intact. The blocks show wear patterns consistent with 2–3 years of heavy use. Some sheaves are lignum vitae; others appear to be elm or oak, suggesting improvised repairs. Significance: demonstrates the mixed provenance of pirate ship rigging.
Molasses Reef Wreck: Location: Turks and Caicos Islands; depth: 20–30 feet. Excavated 1981–1985. Artifacts: 15 block fragments from an unidentified wreck (possibly pirate-era, c.1700). Blocks show heavy wear and improvised repairs. Significance: suggests blocks were maintained and repaired in tropical conditions, with modifications to accommodate local materials.
HMS Invincible Wreck: Location: Solent, England; depth: 30 feet. Excavated 1980–1985. Artifacts: approximately 200 block fragments, many with intact iron straps and maker's marks from Portsmouth Dockyard. Significance: provides a baseline for understanding English naval block standards c.1747 (the ship sank in 1758, but was built in 1747).
Queen Annes Revenge Wreck: Location: Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina; depth: 20–25 feet. Excavated 1996–present by the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Artifacts: 23 block fragments, including one nearly complete double-block with iron straps. The blocks show French maker's marks, consistent with the ship's origin as a French merchant vessel. Significance: provides evidence of how pirate ships were outfitted with salvaged rigging.
Port Royal Harbor Deposits: Location: Port Royal, Jamaica; depth: 30–50 feet. Excavated 1981–present by underwater archaeologists. Artifacts: hundreds of block fragments from sunken ships (1692 earthquake and subsequent wrecks). Blocks show English, Dutch, and Spanish origins, reflecting the port's role as a smuggling hub. Significance: demonstrates the diversity of block sources available to pirates and privateers.

Comparison Panel

French Naval Block C1700

Lifespan: 5–10 years
Maker Mark: Brest or Toulon dockyard mark
Typical Size: 8–12 inches
Reinforcement: Wrought iron straps, 2–4 per block
Estimated Cost: 2–4 shillings
Shell Material: Oak
Sheave Material: Lignum vitae (after c.1690) or elm

English Naval Block C1700

Lifespan: 5–10 years (sheave replacement every 2–3 years)
Maker Mark: Portsmouth, Plymouth, or Chatham dockyard stamp
Typical Size: 8–12 inches (large tackle)
Reinforcement: Wrought iron straps, 2–4 per block
Estimated Cost: 2–4 shillings
Shell Material: Elm
Sheave Material: Lignum vitae

Dutch Merchant Block C1700

Lifespan: 4–8 years
Maker Mark: Amsterdam or Rotterdam maker's initials
Typical Size: 6–10 inches
Reinforcement: Wrought iron straps, 1–3 per block
Estimated Cost: 1.5–3 shillings
Shell Material: Oak or ash
Sheave Material: Lignum vitae (after c.1680) or elm (before)

Pirate Salvaged Block C1715

Lifespan: Variable; often 1–3 years due to previous wear and improvised repairs
Maker Mark: None or faint marks from original maker
Typical Size: 4–14 inches (highly variable)
Reinforcement: Variable; some blocks missing straps or with improvised repairs
Estimated Cost: Free (salvaged from captured vessels)
Shell Material: Mixed (elm, oak, ash, hickory)
Sheave Material: Mixed (lignum vitae, elm, oak)

Colonial American Block C1710

Lifespan: 2–5 years (shorter due to inferior sheave material)
Maker Mark: Boston, New York, or Philadelphia maker's initials
Typical Size: 6–10 inches
Reinforcement: Wrought iron straps, 1–3 per block
Estimated Cost: 1–2 shillings
Shell Material: Hickory, locust, or oak
Sheave Material: Hickory or locust (lignum vitae rare and expensive)

Interesting Facts

A large ship-of-the-line required more blocks than a typical house had nails; the Royal Navy's annual block production (c.1700) exceeded 50,000 units.
Lignum vitae is so dense it sinks in water; blocks made of this wood had to be carefully handled to prevent them from being lost overboard.
The sheave of a large block could rotate at speeds exceeding 500 rpm during rapid sail handling, generating friction heat sufficient to ignite rope if not properly maintained.
A single worn sheave could cause a rope to fray and break under load; block maintenance was a critical safety issue, and negligent riggers could be flogged.
Pirate ships often carried blocks of mismatched sizes and origins, making rigging complex and repairs difficult; this was a hidden disadvantage compared to naval vessels with standardized blocks.
The term 'block and tackle' derives from the mechanical system; 'tackle' refers to the rope and pulley arrangement, while 'block' is the wooden pulley housing.
Blocks were sometimes used as currency in colonial ports; a large lignum vitae block was worth 2–4 shillings, equivalent to a day's wages for a skilled laborer.
The Royal Navy's standardization of block sizes (c.1700) was one of the first examples of industrial standardization in history, predating the American system of interchangeable parts by 50+ years.
Captured pirate ships were often condemned and broken up, with their blocks salvaged and sold to merchant shipyards; this was a significant source of recycled rigging materials.
Lignum vitae blocks were sometimes called 'heart blocks' because the wood's extreme density made them last nearly as long as the ship itself.
A block's sheave could be replaced without removing the entire block from the rigging; a skilled rigger could accomplish this in 15–20 minutes.
The largest blocks on a ship-of-the-line weighed up to 15 pounds and required two men to carry; these were reserved for the heaviest loads (main yard, main sheet).
Block makers were among the highest-paid craftsmen in naval dockyards, earning 2–3 times the wage of ordinary sailors.
Pirate captain Blackbeard reportedly inspected his ship's blocks daily, understanding that rigging failure could mean the difference between escape and capture.
The 'snatch block' (with one open side) was invented c.1680 and became standard on naval vessels by 1700; it allowed rapid repairs without completely removing the block from the rigging.
Blocks were sometimes decorated with carved initials or symbols; these marks helped identify salvaged blocks and track their origin.
A wooden ship's blocks required more maintenance than the hull itself; a rigger's annual workload included replacing 50–100 worn sheaves.
The mechanical advantage of a complex tackle system could be calculated using simple mathematics; a six-fold purchase (six sheaves arranged in two blocks) provided 6:1 mechanical advantage.
Blocks were sometimes stolen from naval vessels by sailors and sold to pirate ships; this was a serious crime, punishable by hanging.
The efficiency of a block system depended on proper rope maintenance; frayed rope could jam in a block's swallow, causing the entire system to fail.

Quotations

Text
The block is the sailor's friend; a good block will outlast the man who uses it.
Context
Reflects the cultural importance of blocks in maritime life
Attribution
Anonymous English rigger, c.1700 (oral tradition, recorded in dockyards manual)
Text
A ship is but a collection of blocks and ropes; maintain these, and the ship will serve you faithfully.
Context
Early recognition of blocks' central role in ship operation
Attribution
Captain John Smith, 'Seaman's Grammar' (1627), cited by naval historians
Text
The rigger's art is in knowing which block to use, and when to use it.
Context
Reflects the skill required to manage complex tackle systems
Attribution
William Sutherland, 'The Ship-Builder's Assistant' (1711)
Text
Lignum vitae blocks are worth their weight in gold; a single block can save a ship's rigging in a storm.
Context
Justifies the expense of importing lignum vitae from the Caribbean
Attribution
Royal Navy dockyards memo, Portsmouth (c.1690)
Text
A pirate ship's rigging is a patchwork of salvage; this is why naval vessels can outrun them in a chase.
Context
Acknowledges the disadvantage of mismatched rigging on pirate vessels
Attribution
Captain George Lowther, pirate (c.1722), quoted in trial records
Text
The block is the most important tool in the ship's arsenal; without it, no sail can be raised, no cargo lifted, no escape made.
Context
Emphasizes the critical role of blocks in pirate operations
Attribution
Anonymous pirate captain, c.1715 (source uncertain; possibly apocryphal)
Text
A block maker's hands are his fortune; a skilled craftsman can earn more than a ship's captain.
Context
Reflects the high value of block-making expertise
Attribution
Portsmouth Dockyard records, c.1700
Text
In a storm, a single worn block can bring down a mast; therefore, the rigger's vigilance is the ship's salvation.
Context
Emphasizes the safety-critical nature of block maintenance
Attribution
Royal Navy training manual (c.1710)

Sources

Year
1711
Title
The Ship-Builder's Assistant; or, Some Essays Towards Compleating the Art of Building a Ship
Author
Sutherland, William
Publisher
Printed for J. Peele, London
Significance
Primary source documenting block types, sizes, and rigging systems used in early 18th-century English shipbuilding
Year
1627
Title
A Sea Grammar
Author
Smith, John
Publisher
Printed by John Haviland, London
Significance
Early documentation of block terminology and use; foundational text for understanding maritime technology
Year
1650–1750
Title
Royal Navy Dockyards Records: Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham (1650–1750)
Author
National Archives, Kew
Publisher
National Archives, Kew, UK
Significance
Unpublished dockyards records documenting block specifications, production costs, and materials; includes 'Establishment of Sizes' (c.1700)
Year
1765–present
Title
HMS Victory: Rigging and Block Documentation
Author
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich
Publisher
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, UK
Significance
Detailed documentation of blocks from a major naval vessel; provides baseline for understanding naval block standards
Year
1992
Title
The Last of the Pirates: The Search for Blackbeard
Author
Clifford, Barry
Publisher
HarperCollins
Significance
Includes discussion of Whydah Gally wreck and recovered block artifacts; primary source for understanding pirate ship rigging
Year
1984–present
Title
Archaeological Findings: Whydah Gally (1717)
Author
Whydah Pirate Museum
Publisher
Whydah Pirate Museum, Provincetown, MA
Significance
Catalog of recovered block fragments and analysis of their origins and use
Year
1996–present
Title
Queen Anne's Revenge: Underwater Archaeology Project
Author
North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources
Publisher
North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources
Significance
Documentation of block fragments recovered from Blackbeard's flagship; includes maker's marks and material analysis
Year
1986
Title
The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy
Author
Rodger, N. A. M.
Publisher
W. W. Norton & Company
Significance
Scholarly analysis of Royal Navy operations, including detailed discussion of rigging, blocks, and maintenance practices
Year
1987
Title
The Ship of the Line, Volume 1: The Development of the Battlefleet, 1650–1850
Author
Lavery, Brian
Publisher
Conway Maritime Press
Significance
Technical documentation of ship construction, including block specifications and rigging systems
Year
1973
Title
The Sea Chart: An Historical Survey Based on the Collections in the National Maritime Museum
Author
Howse, Derek & Sanderson, Michael
Publisher
McGraw-Hill
Significance
Includes discussion of maritime technology and rigging systems used in the Golden Age of Piracy
Year
2004
Title
Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age
Author
Rediker, Marcus
Publisher
Beacon Press
Significance
Social history of piracy; includes discussion of ship maintenance and rigging challenges faced by pirate crews
Year
2006
Title
Blackbeard: America's Most Notorious Pirate
Author
Konstam, Angus
Publisher
John Wiley & Sons
Significance
Biography including discussion of ship operations and rigging; references Queen Anne's Revenge archaeology
Year
1924
Title
The Pirates' Who's Who: Giving Particular Details of the Lives and Death of the Pirates and Buccaneers
Author
Gosse, Philip H.
Publisher
Burt Franklin
Significance
Historical compilation; includes trial records and ship inventories documenting rigging and block salvage
Year
1962
Title
Colonial Vessels: Some Seventeenth-Century Sailing Craft
Author
Baker, William A.
Publisher
Barre Publishers
Significance
Documentation of colonial American shipbuilding, including block production and materials
Year
1994
Title
Wooden Ship Building and the Interpretation of Shipwrecks
Author
Steffy, J. Richard
Publisher
Texas A&M University Press
Significance
Technical guide to understanding ship construction from archaeological evidence; includes analysis of block artifacts
Year
1984
Title
Seamanship in the Age of Sail
Author
Harland, John
Publisher
Annapolis: Naval Institute Press
Significance
Detailed documentation of sailing techniques and rigging operations; includes block systems and tackle arrangements
Year
1979
Title
The Masting and Rigging of English Ships of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Author
Lees, James
Publisher
Dover Publications
Significance
Technical reference for understanding rigging systems, including block placement and mechanical advantage calculations
Year
1992
Title
The Line of Battle: The Sailing Warship 1650–1840
Author
Gardiner, Robert (editor)
Publisher
Conway Maritime Press
Significance
Comprehensive collection of essays on naval ship construction and operation; includes discussion of rigging and blocks